Introduction to Realistic Neural Modeling
Phone: (303) 492-2852, fax: (303) 492-2758, email: dbeeman@dogstar.colorado.edu
urn:nbn:de:0009-3-2189
Abstract. This document corresponds to the tutorial on realistic neural modeling given by David Beeman at WAM-BAMM*05, the first annual meeting of the World Association of Modelers (WAM) Biologically Accurate Modeling Meeting (BAMM) on March 31, 2005 in San Antonio, TX. Part I - Introduction to Realistic Neural Modeling for the Beginner: This is a general overview and introduction to compartmental cell modeling and realistic network simulation for the beginner. Although examples are drawn from GENESIS simulations, the tutorial emphasizes the general modeling approach, rather than the details of using any particular simulator. Part II - Getting Started with Modeling Using GENESIS: This builds upon the background of Part I to describe some details of how this approach is used to construct cell and network simulations in GENESIS. It serves as an introduction and roadmap to the extended hands-on GENESIS Modeling Tutorial.
Keywords: computational neuroscience, realistic neural modeling, simulations, GENESIS, tutorial
How do we use GENESIS, NEURON, or other simulation software to make a detailed realistic simulation of real neuron like this hippocampal pyramidal cell (Fig. 1), or a network composed of them?
Figure 1: Hippocampal Pyramidal Cell.
As you can see, it doesn't look much like the ones you see in treatments of artificial neural networks, where you have a little circle with a summation sign inside. There are extensive trees of dendrites with the apical dendrites at the top, and basal dendrites at the bottom. Other neurons make synaptic connections at various points on this structure, and release neurotransmitters that open channels, allowing ions to flow in or out of the cell, resulting in the production of post-synaptic potentials. It turns out that these dendrites play an important role in the processing of information by the cell. The pyramid shaped cell body, or soma, contains voltage activated sodium and potassium channels somewhat similar to those studied by Hodgkin and Huxley (1952) in the giant axon of the squid. Post-synaptic potentials produced in the dendrites can propagate to the soma to trigger action potentials. Throughout the cell, we also have passive channels that remain partly open all the time, leading to a leakage resistance. The insulating cell membrane separates the conductive cytoplasm inside the cell from the salt water environment outside, giving rise to a membrane capacitance. As the cytoplasm has some resistance, we also have an axial resistance along the dendrites and axon (not visible in this picture). To an electrical engineer or physicist, a section of dendrite acts like a leaky cylindrical capacitor, coupled to neighboring sections with resistances.
Taking this point of view, the answer to our question is - we model it piece by piece. The usual approach is to model this with a lumped parameter model in which we divide the neuron into a finite number of compartments containing resistances, capacitances and batteries to represent ionic equilibrium potentials. We model this complex neuron with something like this (Fig. 2).
Figure 2: Piece by piece modeling with a lumped parameter model in which the neuron is divided into a finite number of compartments containing resistances, capacitances and batteries to represent ionic equilibrium potentials
As a contrast to this simple model with just a few compartments, here is a model of a Purkinje cell from the cerebellum made with GENESIS by De Schutter and Bower ( 1994a , 1994b ) (Fig. 3). It has 4550 compartments and 8021 active conductances ("channels"). If you look closely, you can see that it is actually composed of many cylinders.
Figure 3: Model of a Purkinje cell from the cerebellum made with GENESIS by De Schutter and Bower ( 1994a , 1994b ). It has 4550 compartments and 8021 active conductances ("channels").
Why would one need to construct such a detailed model? If the goal is to understand the way that individual neurons "compute", rather than to implement some abstract model of "neural computation", there is no way to avoid understanding the way that the dendritic structure processes its many inputs. After achieving this understanding with a structurally realistic model, it might be possible to produce a simpler "ball and stick" model that will function equivalently in a large network model. If we ultimately want a simple, computationally efficient neuron model that can be used in simulations of very large neuronal networks, it is better to throw out details after proving that they aren't significant, rather than just hoping that we didn't omit something important at the outset. The importance of this kind of realistic modeling is further discussed by Bower (2005, this volume) .
Each of these compartments has an equivalent circuit. Figure 4 shows a circuit diagram for a generic compartment.
Figure 4: Circuit diagram for a generic compartment.
Vm represents the membrane potential at a point inside the compartment, relative to the "ground" symbol outside the cell. The membrane capacitance Cm can be charged or discharged as current flows into or out of the compartment, changing the value of Vm. This current can come from adjacent compartments, from the passage of ions through ion channels, or from a current Iinject through a probe injected into the compartment. Adjacent compartments have membrane potentials Vm' and Vm'', and the difference in potential across the axial resistances Ra and Ra' can cause current to enter or leave the compartment. The "leakage resistance" Rm and its associated equilibrium potential Em represent the passive channels, and the resistor with the arrow through it represents one of the possible variable conductances that are specific to a particular ion or combination of ions. By convention, these are represented by a conductance Gk, rather than a resistance, 1/Gk. Each one of these conductances has an associated equilibrium potential represented by the battery labeled Ek. The equilibrium potential (reversal potential) is the value of Vm at which there is no net flow of the ion through the conductance. Most neural simulation packages provide a way to calculate these from the Nernst equation. Typically, there will be several of these variable resistances, with different conductances and equilibrium potentials, corresponding to the different types of channels in the compartment. For example, the area near the region of the soma called the "axon hillock" may contain voltage dependent sodium and potassium channels, and regions in the dendrites are likely to contain channels that are chemically activated from synaptic connections. The index k is being used here to represent one of these various types of conductances.
Electrical circuit theory tells us that the rate of change of the voltage across a capacitor is proportional to the current that is applied to charge it. For the circuit above, the differential equation to be solved by the simulation software is
(1)
Of course, the Vm'' and Vm' in the adjacent compartments affect the currents flowing into or out of the compartments, so we are solving many coupled equations in parallel. Also, we will need good models for the way that the conductances Gk vary with voltage, time or synaptic input.
The process of building a biologically realistic compartmental model of a neuron, or a network of such neurons, involves three steps:
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Build a suitably realistic passive cell model, without the variable conductances.
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Add voltage and/or calcium activated conductances.
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Add synaptically activated conductances, and connect them to other cells in a network, or provide artificial inputs to simulate the in-vivo inputs to the neuron.
These topics are dealt with in greater detail in the Advanced Tutorials [1] presentations on:
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Realistic Single Cell Modeling ( Jaeger 2005 , this volume)
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Parameter Searching
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Constructing large networks
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Simulating in vivo-like synaptic input patterns in multicompartmental models ( Edgerton 2005 , this volume)
You can find an overview of compartmental modeling and the Hodgkin-Huxley model in my Introduction to Computational Neuroscience [2]. For example, see the section on Cable Theory of Passive Propagation in Dendrites, and the review of the Hodgkin-Huxley model with its link to Further Details of the Hodgkin-Huxley Model.
First, we need to determine the morphology of the dendritic structure to be used in our model and then to set the values of the passive parameters Rm, Cm, Ra, and Em in the generic compartment diagram.
You will need to decide whether the situation requires an accurate morphological reconstruction, as in the case of the Purkinje cell model described above, or whether a simpler "ball and stick" model is sufficient. The entire process of constructing structurally realistic cell models is covered in the Advanced Tutorial on Realistic Single Cell Modeling ( Jaeger 2005 ).
In either case, the model should display the same passive properties as the cell being modeled. Typically, a negative (hyperpolarizing) current pulse is injected into the cell body. This lowers the membrane potential to a value that will close the voltage-activated channels, eliminating the effect of the Gk terms in the circuit equation and diagram. Ohm's law then gives the input resistance of the cell Rin as the change in Vm divided by the amount of the current injection step. As indicated in figure 5, the exponential approach to the final Vm value is given by a membrane time constant Rin·Cm. This represents the time that it takes to charge up and to discharge the membrane capacitance, and will also affect the duration of a post-synaptic potential.
Figure 5: A hyperpolarizing current injected to the cell soma produces a change in membrane potential V. The time behavior of V can be used to calculate the membrane time constant and the input resistance of the cell.
For a simplistic single-compartment model of a cell, Rm will equal Rin. For a multicompartmental model, it will depend on the Rm and Ra values for all the linked compartments. The problem is often simplified by assuming that all compartments have the same Rm for a unit surface area, and the same Ra per unit length. Typically, Cm is about 1 microfarad per square centimeter (0.01 F/m2) of membrane area. The measured membrane time constant provides another way to estimate these values.
A "ball and stick" model of a neuron might consist of a spherical soma compartment with the appropriate surface area of the actual cell soma, connected to a linear chain of cylindrical dendrite compartments. These are designed to provide a "collapsed dendritic tree" with the same passive properties of a much more detailed model made from a reconstruction of a measured cell morphology.
Then the model is divided into compartments linked together through the axial resistances (Fig. 6). The Digression on Cable Theory in the Lectures on Computational Neuroscience explains why it is customary to choose a compartment length that is less than 5% of the dendrite space constant.
Figure 6: The model is divided into compartments linked together through the axial resistances.
Most models of voltage or concentration dependent conductances are variations of the model developed by Hodgkin and Huxley to explain and describe the production of action potentials in the giant axon of the squid. For a detailed treatment of the Hodgkin-Huxley model, see Chapter 4 of the Book of GENESIS [3] ( Bower and Beeman 1998 ). You can find a simpler review in the section on the Hodgkin-Huxley Model in the Lectures on Computational Neuroscience . It is also worth reading the original paper ( Hodgkin and Huxley 1952 ).
The diagram below (Fig. 7) illustrates the ionic basis of the neuron membrane potential.
Figure 7: Ionic basis of the neuron membrane potential. The equilibrium potentials of potassium and sodium ions are such that at the resting potential, potassium ions tend to leave the cell and sodium ions tend to enter.
It is known that the concentration of sodium ions is greater outside the cell, so they have a tendency to enter. The concentration of potassium ions is greater on the inside, so they tend to leave. Metabolic processes within the cell called ionic pumps maintain this balance of concentrations. With this difference in ionic concentrations, the interior of the cell is polarized to a membrane potential of about 70 mV negative to the outside, when the cell is at rest. Because of the higher exterior concentration of sodium, it has an equilibrium potential (reversal potential) of about 45 mV positive with respect to the cell, meaning that it will tend to enter the cell as long as the membrane potential is less than ENa. Likewise, this competition between osmotic and electrostatic forces means that potassium will tend to leave unless the membrane potential falls below EK.
Hodgkin and Huxley quantitatively explained the process by which depolarization of the cell (an increase in Vm) causes Na-selective channels to open, allowing Na ions to enter. This raises the potential, further increasing the conduction of the Na channels, and causes the neuron to fire an action potential. Eventually, the Na channels inactivate, and K-selective channels begin to open, causing a flow of charge out of the cell, ending the action potential.
The conductance of the squid axon potassium channel is proportional to the fourth power of the activation variable n. The conductance of the sodium channel is proportional to the product of the third power of its activation variable m and an inactivation variable h, which decreases as the membrane potential increases.
(2)
The rate of change of the activation or inactivation variable is given by a differential equation similar to the one for n:
(3)
The voltage dependent rate parameters and are related to the steady state value of the of the activation and its time constant for reaching this value by the equations
(4)
These may be measured by voltage clamp experiments. The plot below (Fig. 8) shows the steady state activation and inactivation variables n, m, and h and their time constants as a function of membrane potential.
Figure 8: Steady state activation and inactivation variables n, m, and h and their time constants as a function of membrane potential.
From this data, or from published results for other ionic conductances, one can fit the voltage dependence of the rate parameters. The expressions obtained by Hodgkin and Huxley for the potassium conductance are:
(5)
The simulator can then solve the differential equations for the activation variables and calculate the Gk for each type of conductance k. Chapter 7 of the Book of GENESIS describes how this approach is used for the several other types of ionic conductances found in neurons, such as calcium conductances, calcium-activated potassium conductances, and inactivating potassium conductances.
The variable conductance in the generic compartment diagram (see Fig. 4) could also represent a synaptically activated conductance, usually in a dendritic compartment.
Figure 9: A synapse with an action potential propagating to the pre-synaptic terminal, causing neurotransmitter release, and the resulting post-synaptic conductance change, G(t). Current flow through this conductance can lead to a post-synaptic potential (PSP).
This diagram (Fig. 9) shows a synapse with an action potential propagating to the pre-synaptic terminal, causing neurotransmitter release, and the resulting post-synaptic conductance change, G(t). Current flow through this conductance can lead to a post-synaptic potential (PSP).
There is a lot of biochemistry and molecular biology involved in this behavior, often involving complicated chains of reactions and 'second messengers'. Fortunately, we can often use an empirical fit to the observed behavior, rather than modeling it in detail.
Typically, the conductance change from a quantum of neurotransmitter follows a linear rise and exponential decay, so it is often modeled with a so-called alpha-function with a single time constant:
(6)
Sometimes, a dual exponential function will be used:
.
(7)
The current due to this conductance is I = G·(Ek - Vm), which may be into or out of the cell, depending on the size of the ionic equilibrium potential Ek, relative to the membrane potential. Here we have adopted the convention that a positive current flows into the cell. Thus, if the Ek is large (Na or Ca), the current will be directed into the cell, and it will be a depolarizing (excitatory) synapse. If it is large and negative (Ek < Vm, as for potassium), it will be an inhibitory synapse. So, we can use the same model for both types of synapses.
If we were interested in understanding the details of axonal propagation we could model an axon as a series of linked compartments containing Hodgkin-Huxley Na and K conductances. We can model synaptic connections more efficiently if we treat an axon as just a delay line for the propagation of spike events that are triggered by action potentials and that last for a single time step (Fig. 10).
Figure 10: A threshold detector is used to convert the continuously varying action potentials to spike events that are propagated to a synapse after an appropriate axonal propagation delay.
Hodgkin and Huxley used this general approach to model a single compartment representing a short piece of squid giant axon. You could duplicate their model by writing a program in Pascal, C or FORTRAN to solve the equations given in their papers. However, there are a lot of advantages to using a general purpose simulator such as GENESIS and a high level simulation language, rather than writing code in a computer language.
The design of the GENESIS simulator and interface is based on a ``building block'' approach. Simulations are constructed from modules that receive inputs, perform calculations on them, and then generate outputs. Model neurons are constructed from these basic components, such as compartments. and variable conductance ion channels. Compartments are linked to their channels and are then linked together to form multi-compartmental neurons of any desired level of complexity. Neurons may be linked together to form neural circuits. This object-oriented approach is central to the generality and flexibility of the system, as it allows modelers to easily exchange and reuse models or model components. In addition, it makes it possible to extend the functionality of GENESIS by adding new commands or simulation components to the simulator, without having to modify the GENESIS base code.
GENESIS uses a high-level simulation language to construct neurons and their networks. Commands may be issued either interactively to a command prompt, by use of simulation scripts, or through the graphical interface. A particular simulation is set up by writing a sequence of commands in the scripting language that creates the network itself and the graphical interface for a particular simulation. The scripting language and the modules are powerful enough that only a few lines of script are needed to specify a sophisticated simulation. The principal components of the simulation system and the various modes of interacting with GENESIS are illustrated below (Fig. 11).
Figure 11: The principal components of the simulation system and the various modes of interacting with GENESIS.
The underlying level of the GENESIS user interface is the Script Language Interpreter (SLI). This is a command interpreter similar to a Unix system shell with an extensive set of commands related to building, monitoring and controlling simulations. GENESIS simulation objects and graphical objects are linked together using the scripting language. The interpreter can read SLI commands either interactively from the keyboard (allowing interactive debugging, inspection, and control of the simulation), or from files containing simulation scripts.
The graphical user interface (GUI) is XODUS, the X-windows Output and Display Utility for Simulations. This provides a higher level and user-friendly means for developing simulations and monitoring their execution. XODUS consists of a set of graphical objects that are the same as the computational modules from the user's point of view, except that they perform graphical functions. As with the computational modules, XODUS modules can be set up in any manner that the user chooses to display or enter data. Furthermore, the graphical modules can call functions from the script language, so the full power of the SLI is available through the graphical interface. This makes it possible to interactively change simulation parameters in real time to directly observe the effects of parameter variations. The mouse may also be used to plant recording or injection electrodes into a graphical representation of the cell. In addition to provisions for plotting the usual quantities of interest (membrane potentials, channel conductances, etc.), XODUS has visualization features that permit such things as using color to display the propagation of action potentials or other variables throughout a multi-compartmental model, and to display connections and cell activity in a network model.
Here are some examples of the GUI for some GENESIS simulations:
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An example of Kinetikit , for modeling chemical reactions such as occur in biochemical signaling pathways
The "GENESIS Simulation Engine'' consists of the simulator base code that provides the common control and support routines for the system, including those for input/output and for the numerical solution of the differential equations obeyed by the various neural simulation objects.
In addition to receiving commands from the SLI and the GUI, the simulation engine can construct simulations using information from data files and from the pre-compiled GENESIS object libraries. For example, the GENESIS "cell reader'' allows one to build complex model neurons by reading their specifications from a data file, instead of from a lengthy series of GENESIS commands delivered to the SLI. Similarly, network connection specifications may be read from a data file with the "fileconnect'' command.
The GENESIS object libraries contain the building blocks from which many different simulations can be constructed. These include the spherical and cylindrical compartments from which the physical structure of neurons are constructed, voltage and/or concentration activated channels, dendro-dendritic channels, and synaptically-activated channels with synapses of several types including Hebbian and facilitating synapses. In addition, there are objects for computing intracellular ionic concentrations from channel currents, for modeling the diffusion of ions within cells (e.g., concentration pools, ionic pumps, and buffers), and for allowing ligand gating of ion channels (e.g., magnesium blocking for NMDA channels).
There are also a number of "device objects'' that may be interfaced to the simulation to provide various types of input to the simulation (pulse and spike generators, voltage clamp circuitry, etc.) or measurements (peristimulus and interspike interval histograms, spike frequency measurements, auto- and cross-correlation histograms, etc.).
You may find a summary of all the GENESIS device objects in the Reference Manual [4] section on Objects , with links to the documentation for individual objects.
The various elements in a GENESIS simulation are organized in a tree like the one shown below (Fig. 12), and are referenced with a notation similar to that used in UNIX directory trees. Thus, "/net/cell[1]/dend[2]/GABA" might refer to an inhibitory synaptically activated conductance residing in the dendrite compartment 2 of cell 1 of a network.
Figure 12: The various elements in a GENESIS simulation are organized in a tree and are referenced with a notation similar to that used in UNIX directory trees.
These objects communicate by passing messages to each other, and each contains the knowledge of its own variables (fields) and the methods (actions) that it uses to perform its duties during a simulation. For example, during a simulation step, the PROCESS action will be carried out for each type of object in its own way. If it is a voltage activated channel, this means carrying out a step in the numerical solution of the Hodgkin-Huxley equations for the conductance. If it is a graph object, this would mean plotting a point with data from any messages that it receives from other objects.
The GENESIS Modeling Tutorial ( Beeman 2005 , this volume) is a "hands-on" practical guide to creating simulations using the GENESIS scripting language. It provides and analyzes example scripts that you can modify or extend to create your own simulations of single cells and networks. The following examples will give you a feel for what it is like to use the scripting language.
The use of the GENESIS scripting language can best be illustrated with a simple example like the trivial script:
//genesis script for a simple compartment simulation
// These commands may also be entered interactively
// create an instance of the compartment object
create compartment /soma
// set some internal fields
setfield /soma Rm 10 Cm 2 Em 25 inject 5
// create and display a graph inside a form
create xform /data
create xgraph /data/voltage
xshow /data
// add messages (PLOT Vm and inject) to the graph
addmsg /soma /data/voltage PLOT Vm *volts *red
addmsg /soma /data/voltage PLOT inject *current *blue
// make some buttons to execute simulation commands
create xbutton /data/RESET -script reset
create xbutton /data/RUN -script "step 100"
create xbutton /data/QUIT -script quit
// initialize each element before starting
reset
This would produce the display shown in Fig. 13:
Figure 13: Display for the example above.
This script is further analyzed and developed in the GENESIS Modeling Tutorial sections A basic tutorial on GENESIS and Making realistic neural compartments (see Beeman 2005 , this volume).
A more realistic cell model will use messages to link compartments together, and to add ionic conductances. For example, compartments exchange information about their membrane potential (at the previous time step) and axial resistance with the messages and GENESIS commands (Fig. 14):
addmsg /cell/soma /cell/dend AXIAL previous_state
addmsg /cell/dend /cell/soma RAXIAL Ra previous_state
Figure 14: The messages and GENESIS commands that couple adjacent neural compartments. These allow the simulator to calculate the current flow between compartments.
Compartments and the ionic conductances ("channels") that they contain require these messages (Fig. 15):
addmsg /cell/dend /cell/dend/Ex_channel VOLTAGE Vm
addmsg /cell/soma/Ex_channel /cell/dend CHANNEL Gk Ek
Figure 15: The messages and GENESIS commands that link a channel to its parent compartment. These allow the mebrane potential of the compartment to affect the conductance of the channel, which passes its conductance and equilibrium potential back to the compartment.
Fortunately, you don't need to set up most of these messages by hand, writing a lot of GENESIS addmsg commands. GENESIS has a readcell command that will build a cell from a file that specifies the dimensions of the compartments, how they are connected to each other, and what channels they contain. The use of readcell and the format of GENESIS cell parameter files is covered in the GENESIS Modeling Tutorial section Building a cell the easy way (see Beeman 2005 , this volume).
Here is an example of a GENESIS version of the 1991 Traub 19-compartment model hippocampal CA3 region pyramidal cell ( Traub et al. 1991 ):
// genesis - "Stand-alone" version of the traub91 tutorial
setclock 0 0.00005 // set the simulation clock
/* file for 1991 Traub model channels */
include traub91proto.g
// Create a library of prototype elements to be used by the cell reader
create neutral /library
pushe /library
create symcompartment symcompartment
make_Na
make_Ca
make_K_DR
make_K_AHP
make_K_C
make_K_A
make_Ca_conc
pope
// Build the cell from a parameter file using the cell reader
readcell CA3.p /cell
setfield /cell/soma inject 0.2e-9 // Provide 0.2 nA injection current
include graphics.g // You create this file to provide a GUI
reset
This is the basis of a suggested exercise (see traubcell/README ), where it is up to you to implement the graphical interface. This simulation makes use of two other files. traubcell/CA3.p is a "cell parameter file" describing the cell, and traubcell/traub91proto.g defines the functions to make the channels and other elements used in the model.
Here is a simple example of a GENESIS script to create an ionic conductance, similar to the ones in traub91proto.g.
/* FILE INFORMATION
GENESIS script to make a "squid-like" K channel
squid giant axon voltage-dependent channels,
A.L.Hodgkin and A.F.Huxley, J.Physiol(Lond) 117, pp 500-544 (1952)
*/
// CONSTANTS
float EREST_ACT = -0.07 // resting potential (volts)
float EK = -0.082 // potassium equil potential
float SOMA_A = len*PI*dia // compartment area
function make_K_squid_hh
str chanpath = "K_squid_hh"
create tabchannel {chanpath}
setfield ^ Ek {EK} Gbar {360.0*SOMA_A} Ik 0 Gk 0 \
Xpower 4 Ypower 0 Zpower 0
setupalpha {chanpath} X {10e3*(0.01 + EREST_ACT)} \
-10.0e3 -1.0 {-1.0*(0.01 + EREST_ACT)} -0.01 \
125.0 0.0 0.0 {-1.0*EREST_ACT} 80.0e-3
end
This script creates a tabchannel (a Hodgkin-Huxley type voltage activated channel with tabulated values of the state variables). The function setupalpha uses a generalized version of the Hodgkin-Huxley state variables α and β, namely (A + B*V)/(C + exp((V + D)/F)), in order to set up the tabchannel tables. Details of using the tabchannel object and the setupalpha command are given in the GENESIS Reference Manual .
Finally, here are some examples of GENESIS commands that are used to create networks. Of course, you will need to look at the GENESIS Reference Manual to understand exactly how they work, and to study the GENESIS Modeling Tutorial sections Making synaptic connections and Creating large networks with GENESIS (see Beeman 2005 , this volume).
These statements create a synaptically activated channel (synchan), and send it spike events that are triggered by the membrane potential of a cell soma.
/* create a synaptically activated channel and set some fields
create synchan /cell/dend[5]/Ex_channel
setfield /cell/dend[5]/Ex_channel tau1 3e-3 tau2 3e-3 gmax 5.0e-10
/* Add a spike generator to the soma of a cell */
create spikegen /cell/soma/spike
setfield /cell/soma/spike thresh 0 abs_refract 0.010 output_amp 1
/* use the soma membrane potential to drive the spike generator */
addmsg /cell/soma /cell/soma/spike INPUT Vm
/* make an excitatory connection to cell2 */
addmsg /cell/soma/spike /cell2/dend/Ex_channel SPIKE
setfield /cell2/dend/Ex_channel synapse[0].weight 10 synapse[0].delay 0.005
Networks of cells are created by making copies of a prototype cell. This can be done individually:
copy /library/pyr_cell /cortex/cell[5] // copy a prototype cell
or large arrays can be constructed with the createmap command:
// Make two arrays of cells cell[0] through cell[nx*ny-1]
createmap /proto/cell /lgn {nx} {ny} -delta {dx} {dy}
createmap /proto/cell /v1 {destx} {desty} -delta {dx} {dy}
GENESIS also has commands to set up connections between an array of cells:
// Make connections from the LGN to the V1 cells in a certain region
planarconnect /lgn/cell[]/spike /v1/cell[]/glu -relative \
-sourcemask box -1 -1 1 1 \
-destmask box {-dx * 2.4} {-dy * 0.6} {dx * 2.4} {dy * 0.6}
// Use a file to specify the connections
fileconnect /lgn/##[TYPE=spikegen] /v1/cell[]/glu conn.wts – wtscale 0.01
The GENESIS Modeling Tutorial section on Creating large networks with GENESIS (see Beeman 2005 , this volume) illustrates the steps leading up to a simulation of a grid of simplified neocortical regular spiking pyramidal cells, each one coupled with excitatory synaptic connections to its four nearest neighbors. This might model the connections due to local association fibers in a cortical network. The example simulation, in the networks/RSnet directory, was designed to be easily modified to allow you to use other cell models, implement other patterns of connectivity, or to augment with a population of inhibitory interneurons and the several other types of connections in a cortical network. When you run RSnet.g with the default parameters, you will see something like the display shown in Figs. 16 and 17:
Figure 16: The RSnet simulation control panel (left) and the plot of membrane potentiial of cells at the center, right edge, and lower left corner of the network (right).
This animated image shows repeating sequences from the view widget that represents the membrane potentials for each of the cells in the network, using a cold to hot color scale. Here, you can see propagating waves of action potentials.
Figure 17: Animated display of the membrane potential in each cell of the network.
If you would like to try running some GENESIS demos and tutorials, there is information to help you get started in the README file for your installation of GENESIS. To create your own GENESIS simulations, see the GENESIS Modeling Tutorial ( Beeman 2005 , this volume).
Screenshot 1: The Cell Display for the Purkinje cell tutorial
Screenshot 2: The display for the piriform cortex tutorial
Screenshot 3: The display for the CPG tutorial
Screenshot 4: An example of Kinetikit, for modeling chemical reactions such as occur in biochemical signaling pathways
Beeman D (2005). GENESIS Modeling Tutorial – WAM-BAMM’05 Edition. Brains, Minds and Media, this volume.
Bower JM (2005). Looking for Newton. Brains, Minds and Media, this volume.
Bower JM and Beeman D (1998). The Book of GENESIS: Exploring Realistic Neural Models with the GEneral NEural SImulation System, 2nd Edition, Springer-Verlag, New York.
De Schutter E and Bower JM (1994a). An Active Membrane Model of the Cerebellar Purkinje Cell: I. Simulation of current clamps in slice. Journal of Neurophysiology, Vol. 71, No. 1, 375-400.
De Schutter E and Bower JM (1994b). An Active Membrane Model of the Cerebellar Purkinje Cell: II. Simulation of Synaptic Responses. Journal of Neurophysiology, Vol. 71, No. 1, 401-419.
Edgerton J (2005). Simulating in vivo-like synaptic input patterns in multicompartmental models. Brains, Minds and Media, this volume.
Hodgkin A and Huxley A (1952). A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve, J. Physiol. (London) 117: 500-544.
Jaeger D (2005). Realistic Single Cell Modeling. Brains, Minds and Media, this volume.
Traub RD, Wong RK, Miles R, and Michelson H (1991). A model of a CA3 hippocampal pyramidal neuron incorporating voltage-clamp data on intrinsic conductances, J. Neurophysiology, 66: 635-50.
[1] Original presentation material of the Advanced Tutorials on Realistic Neural Modeling at WAM-BAMM’05. http://www.wam-bamm.org/WB05/Tutorials ; last visit: August 1, 2005
[2] Dave Beeman – Lectures on Computational Neuroscience, http://www.genesis-sim.org/GENESIS/cnsweb/cnslecs.html ; last visit: August 1, 2005.
[3] James M. Bower and David Beeman 2003 - Free Internet Edition of The Book of Genesis, 2nd Edition. http://www.genesis-sim.org/GENESIS/bog/bog.html ; last visit: August 01, 2005
[4] The GENESIS Reference Manual, http://www.genesis-sim.org/GENESIS/Hyperdoc/Manual.html ; last visit August 01, 2005
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